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Books of Samuel – Survey of the Holy Scriptures Study: YouTube
Messianic Apologetics editor John McKee surveys the Books of Samuel from a Messianic perspective.
reproduced from A Survey of the Holy Scriptures for the Practical Messianic
Approximate date: 970-800s B.C.E. (Right, some conservative-moderate); before 586 B.C.E. (some conservative-moderate, some Left); mid-to-late 500s B.C.E. (some Left)
Time period: rise of Israel’s monarchy via the establishment of Kings Saul and David
Author: Samuel (Right); Israel’s court historians and further editors (conservative-moderate); Israel’s court historians or an unknown exile from the Southern Kingdom (Left)
Location of author: Land of Israel (Right, some conservative-moderate); Jerusalem, Babylon, and/or Land of Israel (some conservative-moderate, Left)
Target audience and their location: people of Israel during the Davidic and/or Solomonic monarchy (Right, conservative-moderate); Jewish religious leaders during the reign of King Josiah and/or Jewish exiles living in Babylon or returning from Babylon (Left)
The Books of 1&2 Samuel are named for the Prophet Shmuel, whom God used to establish Ancient Israel’s monarchy. It is largely an account of three individuals: Samuel as Israel’s last judge, Saul as Israel’s first king, and David as Israel’s greatest king. The Prophet Samuel anointed both Saul and David, and his role in this period of Israel’s history is similar to that of Moses several centuries earlier (Psalm 99:6; Jeremiah 15:1). The Books of 1&2 Samuel communicate a great deal about the human condition as lived out in the lives of political figures. 1&2 Samuel depict a type of kingship unique to the Ancient Near East, where kings were often absolute rulers. With the examples of Saul and David, examiners encounter that a delicate balance existed between Israel’s monarchs and the religious authorities,[1] making the king accountable to God.
Samuel was originally a single book, but became divided in two by the Third-Second Centuries B.C.E. by the translators of the Greek Septuagint.[2] This likely occurred because the Greek translation of the Hebrew required two scrolls instead of one.[3] The division of Samuel into two books started appearing in standardized Hebrew texts in the Fifteenth-Sixteenth Centuries C.E.,[4] possibly to accommodate Christians in Europe.[5] The division between 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel occurs naturally, as King Saul died and the reign of King David begun.
Throughout history this text has actually had a variety of names. The Septuagint originally used the designation Bibloi Basileōn or “Books of the Kings,” for what is now largely considered to be 1&2 Samuel and 1&2 Kings, actually dividing them into 1, 2, 3, and 4 Kings. This pattern was also followed by Jerome in his Latin Vulgate translation, as he designated them Libri Regum. Over time, however, the most common designation became 1&2 Samuel.[6]
In the Jewish canon the Books of Samuel are placed among the Former Prophets, and they appear right after Judges. In the Christian canon, following the order of the Septuagint, 1&2 Samuel are placed among the Histories.
Many hypotheses have been proposed for the composition of 1&2 Samuel. Jewish tradition in the Talmud ascribes authorship to the Prophet Samuel (b.Bava Batra 14b),[7] but exclusive authorship has extreme problems, considering that the events of 1 Samuel chs. 25-31 and all of 2 Samuel occur after the death of Samuel.[8] It is notable, though, that Samuel was a writer (1 Chronicles 29:29), and he may have had a hand in composing some of the sources which would have been used in a text bearing his name.[9] Some consider that the Prophets Nathan and Gad could have been later compilers of the sources for Samuel (b.Bava Batra 15a);[10] based on the testimony of 1 Chronicles 29:29:
“Now the acts of King David, from first to last, are written in the chronicles of Samuel the seer, in the chronicles of Nathan the prophet and in the chronicles of Gad the seer” (1 Chronicles 29:29, NASU).
Another possible source for Samuel includes what would have become 2 Samuel 9-1 Kings 2, the so-called “succession narrative.”
If Samuel, Nathan, and Gad composed various accounts of Saul and David’s kingships, these independent sources in Israel’s court history could have later been edited together.[11] Whoever was the ultimate author or editor of 1&2 Samuel, would have needed access to records detailing the lives of Samuel, Saul, and David. It is fair to assume that Samuel and some of the other prophets, had more influence on the text than is commonly assumed, even if they were not responsible for its final form.[12] Ultimately, conservative examiners are forced to conclude that the author of Samuel must be considered anonymous,[13] with many placing it at the feet of Israel’s court historians.[14] Even though Jewish tradition ascribes authorship to Samuel, it is notable that the author did not identify himself in the text. Attributing the name of Samuel to these books came largely as an attribution of honor.
There are some varied independent sources which may have been used in the composition of Samuel, proposed by various conservatives. Some consider a non-extant Book of Jashar to be such an independent source (2 Samuel 1:18), even though Jewish scholarship largely holds “the Book of Uprightness” (ATS) to be the Torah. The author of Chronicles referenced “the account of the chronicles of King David” (1 Chronicles 27:24, NASU), as well as the chronicles of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad (1 Chronicles 29:29). Many of these potential sources probably included firsthand accounts, and the author(s)/editor(s) of Samuel demonstrated a knowledge of being an historian himself/themselves.
Chronologically, the events of 1&2 Samuel took place over a period of about 200 years, at the beginning of the Eleventh Century B.C.E. to the end of the Tenth Century B.C.E. Many conservatives advocate that Samuel was written at the end of David’s life, and prior to or during the reign of Solomon,[15] placing it at the end of the Tenth Century B.C.E. Some have noted that the text tends to favor the Southern Kingdom of Judah over the Northern Kingdom of Israel,[16] leading some conservatives to believe that Samuel was written in the Ninth Century B.C.E. after the division of Israel. Regardless of whether Samuel was composed in the Tenth or Ninth Century B.C.E., the audience which would have received this text would have a document legitimizing the reign of King David and his dynasty (1 Samuel 16:13).
As with many Biblical texts, there are some chronological uncertainties, and some events may not be given in a strict sequential order.[17] Some events are repeated not because they are different, but possibly because their perspectives are different or supplementary information was added later.[18] The Books of Chronicles often attempt to reconcile the differences. Some perceived differences may be on account of varied textual traditions where the Hebrew MT is incomplete.[19]
Critical examiners largely consider 1&2 Samuel to be among the so-called Deuteronomistic Histories (DH) of Joshua, Judges, and Kings, following the lead of Martin Noth.[20] There are a few conservatives who think that Samuel reached its final form along with these texts,[21] possibly before the Babylonian exile, but often use “Deuteronomic” to describe the influence of Deuteronomy on the text, not that it was written after or during the exile.[22] Noth advocated that the DH were written to call Israel to repentance during the reforms of Josiah in the Seventh Century B.C.E. as a single work, recalling the “glory years” which the people should have returned to. Liberals often continue to agree with Noth’s DH proposition, with some moderate variance.[23] Some liberals argue for literary unity of 1&2 Samuel, especially with 1&2 Kings,[24] and date the text immediately prior to, during, or after the Southern Kingdom’s exile to Babylon. Only a few liberals adhere to a dating immediately after the time of David.[25]
Earlier liberals tried to import elements of the JEDP Documentary Hypothesis of the Torah into Samuel,[26] claiming that the (perceived) contradictions in Samuel could only be solved by understanding the sources behind the text, probably the same sources behind the Pentateuch. This view has largely died out in favor of Noth’s hypothesis of DH unity.[27] Conservatives have frequently responded to these views by asserting that there is unity of language and style throughout Samuel,[28] and that harmonization of the text can be accomplished by a closer reading.
Liberal positions on the historicity of 1&2 Samuel vary, with some thinking that it presents an accurate portrayal, and others thinking that the text has been grossly exaggerated to cast David in too positive a light.[29] Conservatives generally counter this by noting that 2 Samuel reflected on the largely dysfunctional nature of David’s family, and presented him as a human being with real human problems. It is notable that historically the rise of the Davidic monarchy took place when no major superpower overshadowed the Land of Israel, easily allowing Israel to become a regional force.
Both liberals and conservatives recognize that there are some serious textual problems in the Hebrew MT of Samuel,[30] with some considering it to be “the worst of the OT books,” even though “it is not evident to the ordinary reader” (IDBSup).[31] Samuel “has suffered from extensive textual corruption, particularly in the omission of words or phrases” (ISBE).[32] A notable one appears in 1 Samuel 13:1, where the MT simply says “Saul was … years old when he became king, and he reigned over Israel two years” (NJPS). A few versions supply “thirty” (NASU, NIV) as a guess as to Saul’s age.
Some passages in various English translations of Samuel have to be supplemented with information from parallel texts in Psalms, Chronicles, and ancient versions such as the Greek Septuagint,[33] Dead Sea Scrolls, or even information from Josephus’ Antiquities of the Jews. Notable among these sources is the LXX, which some consider to be “an indispensable source for the text of Samuel” (Flanagan and Brueggemann, ABD),[34] frequently expanding the text where the Hebrew leaves the reader puzzled by incomplete statements.[35] Many Christian Bibles will provide supplementary information from the LXX when the Hebrew is unclear, whereas Jewish versions will often just indicate textual difficulties in margin notes. The Septuagint version of Samuel likely reflects an older, non-extant Hebrew text which was considerably longer than the present MT.[36]
1 Samuel largely details the establishment of Israel’s monarchy led by a human king, and the events which necessitated it. The birth of Samuel (1 Samuel chs. 1-3) foreshadows the events to take place. The Ark narratives (1 Samuel chs. 4-6) describe Israel’s battling with the Philistines, and how the Ark of the Covenant was stolen several times. Samuel as a judge of Israel (1 Samuel 7) called Israel to repentance, and they experienced victory over the Philistines.
After this takes place, the narratives of 1 Samuel chs. 8-12 describe the establishment of the monarchy, and how there was some tension. On the one hand, Samuel was told by God to give the people a king (1 Samuel 8:7, 9, 22; 9:16-17), but on the other hand Israel’s desire for a king was actually considered to be a rejection of God (1 Samuel 8:7; 10:19; 12:12, 17, 19-20). Moses himself had anticipated Israel’s desire for a human king (Deuteronomy 17:14-20), but this was not to take place at the expense of Israel rejecting God as its Great King.
A Benjamite named Saul was brought to Samuel and was chosen to be Israel’s first king (1 Samuel chs. 9-10), and he began his reign at Gilgal (1 Samuel chs. 11-12). Challenges arose when the people of Israel had to choose between ultimate loyalty to this new human king or to the Lord. Saul himself had difficulty as a king who must answer to God (1 Samuel chs. 13-15). He refused to destroy the Amalekites at His command, and as a result was rejected as Israel’s king (1 Samuel 15:23).
1 Samuel concluded with God choosing David to be Saul’s successor (1 Samuel chs. 16-31), with the conflict which steadily arose between Saul and David. It culminated in the death of Saul and two of his sons, including David’s close friend Jonathan.
2 Samuel continued the narrative of David, and focused extensively on his kingship. 2 Samuel chs. 1-4 detail how he was gradually accepted as king by the tribes of Israel. David captured the city of Jerusalem and made it his royal residence (2 Samuel 5:13-16), later having brought the Ark of the Covenant to the city (2 Samuel 6; Psalm 132:3-5). David’s rule and influence expanded from Egypt in the south to the Euphrates River in the north (2 Samuel 8). David was told by the Prophet Nathan that he was not permitted to build a permanent house for the Lord, as God was the One who would build him a house or dynasty (2 Samuel 7). The institution of the Davidic Covenant is a theme seen emphasized numerous times by the Prophets, who predicted the coming of a King who would perfectly fulfill the role which David modeled or prefigured.
2 Samuel chs. 10-20 detail the darker aspects of David’s reign. Readers see his sin of adultery with Bathsheba, the leniency he had toward his wicked sons and with family squabblings, and the rebellion of Absalom. 2 Samuel 22:31-51 end with David praising the Lord.
The Books of 1&2 Samuel have much to teach about God’s involvement in politics and what good government actually is. The dilemma which anyone faces, is how one can be loyal to both God and the state, understanding how He is directly involved with human rulers as He is with the rise of Saul and David to power. These were two kings, whose personal characteristics can be easily compared and contrasted. Readers can also see that although David was a very godly man, he was also a man of war and easily fell prey to sin. The king’s family should serve as a model—whether good or bad—to the nation. While 1&2 Samuel can often be viewed as “Sunday school” material, this text has a great deal to tell God’s people about the human condition, which cannot be ignored. “As a rule, human beings, not God, occupy the central stage, their lot being determined by their conduct” (Jewish Study Bible).[37]
The common themes seen in 1&2 Samuel are undoubtedly employed in the Apostolic Scriptures, and formed a major part of the worldview of Yeshua and His Apostles. Even though Samuel was not directly quoted in the New Testament, its figures are mentioned quite regularly. 1&2 Samuel have proven to be a rich resource “for countless sermons, lectures, and lessons throughout the centuries” (EXP).[38] Both the Jewish and Christian theological traditions have always had a high regard for the message of the Books of Samuel.
When interpreting 1&2 Samuel today, it is very important to keep in mind that this text represented a pre-exilic perspective of Israel’s monarchy and King David. One cannot forget the passing influence of Deuteronomy on the message of Samuel,[39] and the fact that the Books of Samuel helped lay the groundwork for the ideas of Messianism and an Anointed King who would save Israel.[40] The Books of Samuel are an excellent place to see Israel asserting itself as a regional power. The question Israel must continually answer, in order to be a blessed power, was whether or not they would obey God.
There is not a great deal of detailed examination of all of 1&2 Samuel in today’s Messianic movement, even though it is an excellent place for one to see the “Torah in action” on a national scale with the establishment of Israel’s monarchy. Any Messianic handling of Samuel, however, will have to take into account varied literary factors, the role of the Septuagint and Dead Sea Scrolls in complementing the Hebrew MT, as well as the various historical criticisms against its message. It will also ask Messianic people many questions about loyalty—not only to God and to state—but how they can balance loyalty to their native countries and maintain a high regard for Israel. Perhaps most importantly, Messianic people have a profound opportunity to teach on and learn about the human condition when examining Samuel, and how obedience to God is imperative to living a happy, productive life.
Bibliography
Bar-Efrat, Shimon. “First Samuel,” in Jewish Study Bible, pp 558-618.
_______________. “Second Samuel,” in Ibid., pp 619-667.
DeVries, Carl E. “Samuel, Books of,” in NIDB, pp 893-894.
Dillard, Raymond B., and Tremper Longman III. “Samuel,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 135-147.
Flanagan, James. W., and Walter Brueggemann. “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:957-973.
Grizzard, Carol. “1 Samuel,” in New Interpreter’s Study Bible, pp 391-438.
____________. “2 Samuel,” in Ibid., pp 439-477.
Harrison, R.K. “The Books of Samuel,” in Old Testament Introduction, pp 695-718.
Klein, R.W. “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:312-320.
Payne, D.F. “1 and 2 Samuel,” in NBCR, pp 284-319.
Szikszai, S. “Samuel, I and II,” in IDB, 4:202-209.
Tsevat, M. “Samuel, I and II,” in IDBSup, pp 777-781.
Youngblood, Ronald F. “1,2 Samuel,” in EXP, 3:553-1104.
NOTES
[1] Shimon Bar-Efrat, “First Samuel,” in Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, eds., The Jewish Study Bible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 559.
[2] James. W. Flanagan and Walter Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in David Noel Freedman, ed., Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols. (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 5:957; Carl E. DeVries, “Samuel, Books of,” in Merrill C. Tenney, ed., The New International Dictionary of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987), 893.
[3] Flanagan and Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:957; Carol Grizzard, “1 Samuel,” in Walter J. Harrelson, ed., et. al., New Interpreter’s Study Bible, NRSV (Nashville: Abingdon, 2003), 391.
[4] DeVries, “Samuel, Books of,” in NIDB, 893.
[5] S. Szikszai, “Samuel, I and II,” in George Buttrick, ed., et. al., The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vols. (Nashville: Abingdon, 1962), 4:203; R.K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), 695; D.F. Payne, “1 and 2 Samuel,” in D. Guthrie and J.A. Motyer, eds., The New Bible Commentary Revised (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1970), 284; R.W. Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in Geoffrey W. Bromiley, ed., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, abridged (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985), 4:313.
[6] Ronald F. Youngblood, “1,2 Samuel,” in Frank E. Gaebelein, ed. et. al., Expositor’s Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 3:553.
[7] “Samuel wrote the book that is called by his name and the book of Judges and Ruth” (b.Bava Batra 14b; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. MS Windows XP. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2005. CD-ROM).
[8] DeVries, “Samuel, Books of,” in NIDB, 893.
[9] Payne, in NBCR, 284.
[10] “Samuel wrote the book that is called by his name and the book of Judges and Ruth: But is it not written, ‘Now Samuel was dead’ (1Sa. 28:3)? Gad the seer and Nathan the prophet finished it” (b.Bava Batra 15a; The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary).
Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 709; Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:313; Youngblood, in EXP, 3:554.
[11] Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:315.
[12] Youngblood, in EXP, 3:554.
[13] Raymond B. Dillard and Tremper Longman III, An Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994), 136.
[14] Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:314.
[15] Payne, in NBCR, 284.
[16] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 709.
[17] Payne, in NBCR, 286.
[18] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 701-708.
[19] Ibid., 708.
[20] Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:317; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 697; Flanagan and Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:959-960; Dillard and Longman, pp 139-140.
[21] Payne, in NBCR, 284.
[22] Youngblood, in EXP, 3:556-557; Dillard and Longman, 136.
[23] Flanagan and Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:966.
[24] M. Tsevat, “Samuel, I and II,” in Keith Crim, ed., Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Supplementary Volume (Nashville: Abingdon, 1976), 777.
[25] DeVries, “Samuel, Books of,” in NIDB, 893.
[26] Szikszai, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDB, 4:204-208; Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, 697; Tsevat, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDBSup, pp 778-780.
[27] Flanagan and Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:959.
[28] DeVries, “Samuel, Books of,” in NIDB, 893.
[29] Szikszai, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDB, 4:209.
[30] Szikszai, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDB, 4:209; Youngblood, in EXP, 3:559-560.
[31] Tsevat, “Samuel, I and II,” in IDBSup, 777.
[32] Klein, “Samuel, Books of,” in ISBE, 4:313.
[33] Payne, in NBCR, 285.
[34] Flanagan and Brueggemann, “Samuel, Book of 1-2,” in ABD, 5:958.
[35] Dillard and Longman, pp 143-145.
[36] Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, pp 708, 717-718.
[37] Bar-Efrat, in Jewish Study Bible, 558.
[38] Youngblood, in EXP, 3:559.
[39] Youngblood, in EXP, 3:556; Dillard and Longman, 145.
[40] Dillard and Longman, pp 146-147.
